Cognition

Neonatal systemic inflammation and the risk of low scores on measures of reading and mathematics achievement at age 10 years among children born extremely preterm

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2018.01.001

Background: Difficulties with reading and math occur more commonly among children born extremely preterm than among children born at term. Reasons for this are unclear.
Methods: We measured the concentrations of 27 inflammatory-related and neurotrophic/angiogenic proteins (angio-neurotrophic proteins) in multiple blood specimens collected a week apart during the first postnatal month from 660 children born before the 28th week of gestation who at age 10 years had an IQ ≥ 70 and a Wechsler Individual Achievement Test 3rd edition (WIAT-III) assessment. We identified four groups of children, those who had a Z-score ≤ −1 on the Word Reading assessment only, on the Numerical Operations assessment only, on both of these assessments, and on neither, which served as the referent group. We then modeled the risk of each learning limitation associated with a top quartile concentration of each protein, and with high and lower concentrations of multiple proteins.
Results: The protein profile of low reading scores was confined to the third and fourth postnatal weeks when increased risks were associated with high concentrations of IL-8 and ICAM-1 in the presence of low concentrations of angio-neurotrophic proteins. The profile of low math scores was very similar, except it did not include ICAM-1. In contrast, the profile of low scores on both assessments was present in each of the first four postnatal weeks. The increased risks associated with high concentrations of TNF-α in the first two weeks and of IL-8 and ICAM-1 in the next two weeks were modulated down by high concentrations of angio-neurotrophic proteins.
Conclusions: High concentrations of angio-neurotrophic proteins appear to reduce/moderate the risk of each learning limitation associated with systemic inflammation. The three categories of limitations have protein profiles with some similarities, and yet some differences, too.

Neonatal systemic inflammation and the risk of low scores on measures of reading and mathematics achievement at age 10 years among children born extremely preterm

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2018.01.001

Background: Difficulties with reading and math occur more commonly among children born extremely preterm than among children born at term. Reasons for this are unclear.
Methods: We measured the concentrations of 27 inflammatory-related and neurotrophic/angiogenic proteins (angio-neurotrophic proteins) in multiple blood specimens collected a week apart during the first postnatal month from 660 children born before the 28th week of gestation who at age 10 years had an IQ ≥ 70 and a Wechsler Individual Achievement Test 3rd edition (WIAT-III) assessment. We identified four groups of children, those who had a Z-score ≤ −1 on the Word Reading assessment only, on the Numerical Operations assessment only, on both of these assessments, and on neither, which served as the referent group. We then modeled the risk of each learning limitation associated with a top quartile concentration of each protein, and with high and lower concentrations of multiple proteins.
Results: The protein profile of low reading scores was confined to the third and fourth postnatal weeks when increased risks were associated with high concentrations of IL-8 and ICAM-1 in the presence of low concentrations of angio-neurotrophic proteins. The profile of low math scores was very similar, except it did not include ICAM-1. In contrast, the profile of low scores on both assessments was present in each of the first four postnatal weeks. The increased risks associated with high concentrations of TNF-α in the first two weeks and of IL-8 and ICAM-1 in the next two weeks were modulated down by high concentrations of angio-neurotrophic proteins.
Conclusions: High concentrations of angio-neurotrophic proteins appear to reduce/moderate the risk of each learning limitation associated with systemic inflammation. The three categories of limitations have protein profiles with some similarities, and yet some differences, too.

Circulating biomarkers in extremely preterm infants associated with ultrasound indicators of brain damage

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2018.01.018

Aim
To assess to what extent the blood concentrations of proteins with neurotrophic and angiogenic properties measured during the first postnatal month convey information about the risk of sonographically-identified brain damage among very preterm newborns.
Methods
Study participants were 1219 children who had a cranial ultrasound scan during their stay in the intensive care nursery and blood specimens collected on 2 separate days at least a week apart during the first postnatal month. Concentrations of selected proteins in blood spots were measured with electrochemiluminescence or with a multiplex immunobead assay and the risks of cranial ultrasound images associated with top-quartile concentrations were assessed.
Results
High concentrations of multiple inflammation-related proteins during the first 2 postnatal weeks were associated with increased risk of ventriculomegaly, while high concentrations of just 3 inflammation-related proteins were associated with increased risk of an echolucent/hypoechoic lesion (IL-6, IL-8, ICAM-1), especially on day 7. Concomitant high concentrations of IL6R and bFGF appeared to modulate the increased risks of ventriculomegaly and an echolucent lesion associated with inflammation. More commonly high concentrations of putative protectors/repair-enhancers did not appear to diminish these increased risks.
Conclusion
Our findings provide support for the hypothesis that endogenous proteins are capable of either protecting the brain against damage and/or enhancing repair of damage.

Circulating biomarkers in extremely preterm infants associated with ultrasound indicators of brain damage

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2018.01.018

Aim
To assess to what extent the blood concentrations of proteins with neurotrophic and angiogenic properties measured during the first postnatal month convey information about the risk of sonographically-identified brain damage among very preterm newborns.
Methods
Study participants were 1219 children who had a cranial ultrasound scan during their stay in the intensive care nursery and blood specimens collected on 2 separate days at least a week apart during the first postnatal month. Concentrations of selected proteins in blood spots were measured with electrochemiluminescence or with a multiplex immunobead assay and the risks of cranial ultrasound images associated with top-quartile concentrations were assessed.
Results
High concentrations of multiple inflammation-related proteins during the first 2 postnatal weeks were associated with increased risk of ventriculomegaly, while high concentrations of just 3 inflammation-related proteins were associated with increased risk of an echolucent/hypoechoic lesion (IL-6, IL-8, ICAM-1), especially on day 7. Concomitant high concentrations of IL6R and bFGF appeared to modulate the increased risks of ventriculomegaly and an echolucent lesion associated with inflammation. More commonly high concentrations of putative protectors/repair-enhancers did not appear to diminish these increased risks.
Conclusion
Our findings provide support for the hypothesis that endogenous proteins are capable of either protecting the brain against damage and/or enhancing repair of damage.

Every look matters: Appraisals of faces follow distinct rules of information integration under arousing versus non-arousing conditions

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2018.1449734

In this research, we investigated whether appraisals of faces follow distinct rules of information integration under arousing versus non-arousing conditions. Support for this prediction was found in four experiments in which participants observed angry (and fearful) faces that were presented with a direct versus an averted gaze (Experiments 1a, b), on a red versus a grey background (Experiment 2), and after performing a motor exercise versus no exercise (Experiment 3). Under arousing conditions, participants’ appraisals of faces reflected summation (i.e. extremely negative encounters were strengthened by moderately negative encounters) whereas, under non-arousing conditions, appraisals did not reflect summation (i.e. extremely negative encounters were weakened by moderately negative encounters) and could instead be accounted for by three alternative rules of information integration based on averaging, mere exposure, or the number of strong stimuli.

Every look matters: Appraisals of faces follow distinct rules of information integration under arousing versus non-arousing conditions

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2018.1449734

In this research, we investigated whether appraisals of faces follow distinct rules of information integration under arousing versus non-arousing conditions. Support for this prediction was found in four experiments in which participants observed angry (and fearful) faces that were presented with a direct versus an averted gaze (Experiments 1a, b), on a red versus a grey background (Experiment 2), and after performing a motor exercise versus no exercise (Experiment 3). Under arousing conditions, participants’ appraisals of faces reflected summation (i.e. extremely negative encounters were strengthened by moderately negative encounters) whereas, under non-arousing conditions, appraisals did not reflect summation (i.e. extremely negative encounters were weakened by moderately negative encounters) and could instead be accounted for by three alternative rules of information integration based on averaging, mere exposure, or the number of strong stimuli.

Systemic Inflammation during the First Postnatal Month and the Risk of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Characteristics among 10 year-old Children Born Extremely Preterm

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11481-017-9742-9

Although multiple sources link inflammation with attention difficulties, the only human study that evaluated the relationship between systemic inflammation and attention problems assessed attention at age 2 years. Parent and/or teacher completion of the Childhood Symptom Inventory-4 (CSI-4) provided information about characteristics that screen for attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) among 793 10-year-old children born before the 28th week of gestation who had an IQ ≥ 70. The concentrations of 27 proteins in blood spots obtained during the first postnatal month were measured. 151 children with ADHD behaviors were identified by parent report, while 128 children were identified by teacher report. Top-quartile concentrations of IL-6R, TNF-α, IL-8, VEGF, VEFG-R1, and VEGF-R2 on multiple days were associated with increased risk of ADHD symptoms as assessed by a teacher. Some of this increased risk was modulated by top-quartile concentrations of IL-6R, RANTES, EPO, NT-4, BDNF, bFGF, IGF-1, PIGF, Ang-1, and Ang-2. Systemic inflammation during the first postnatal month among children born extremely preterm appears to increase the risk of teacher-identified ADHD characteristics, and high concentrations of proteins with neurotrophic properties appear capable of modulating this increased risk.

Early postnatal illness severity scores predict neurodevelopmental impairments at 10 years of age in children born extremely preterm

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1038/jp.2016.242

OBJECTIVE: A neonatal illness severity score, The Score for Neonatal Acute Physiology-II (SNAP-II), predicts neurodevelopmental impairments at two years of age among children born extremely preterm. We sought to evaluate to what extent SNAP-II is predictive of cognitive and other neurodevelopmental impairments at 10 years of age. STUDY DESIGN: In a cohort of 874 children born before 28 weeks of gestation, we prospectively collected clinical, physiologic and laboratory data to calculate SNAP-II for each infant. When the children were 10 years old, examiners who were unaware of the child's medical history assessed neurodevelopmental outcomes, including neurocognitive, gross motor, social and communication functions, diagnosis and treatment of seizures or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), academic achievement, and quality of life. We used logistic regression to adjust for potential confounders. RESULTS: An undesirably high SNAP-II (⩾30), present in 23% of participants, was associated with an increased risk of cognitive impairment (IQ, executive function, language ability), adverse neurological outcomes (epilepsy, impaired gross motor function), behavioral abnormalities (attention deficit disorder and hyperactivity), social dysfunction (autistic spectrum disorder) and education-related adversities (school achievement and need for educational supports. In analyses that adjusted for potential confounders, Z-scores ⩽-1 on 11 of 18 cognitive outcomes were associated with SNAP-II in the highest category, and 6 of 18 were associated with SNAP-II in the intermediate category. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals ranged from 1.4 (1.01, 2.1) to 2.1 (1.4, 3.1). Similarly, 2 of the 8 social dysfunctions were associated with SNAP-II in the highest category, and 3 of 8 were associated with SNAP-II in the intermediate category. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were slightly higher for these assessments, ranging from 1.6 (1.1, 2.4) to 2.3 (1.2, 4.6). CONCLUSION: Among very preterm newborns, physiologic derangements present in the first 12 postnatal hours are associated with dysfunctions in several neurodevelopmental domains at 10 years of age. We are unable to make inferences about causality.

Neurocognitive Outcomes at 10 Years of Age in Extremely Preterm Newborns with Late-Onset Bacteremia

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2017.04.045

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the difference in 10-year neurocognitive outcomes between extremely low gestational age newborns without bacteremia and those with suspected or confirmed late-onset bacteremia.
STUDY DESIGN: Neurocognitive function was evaluated at 10 years of age in 889 children born at <28 weeks of gestation and followed from birth. Definite (culture-positive) late-onset bacteremia during postnatal weeks 2-4 was identified in 223 children, and 129 children had suspected bacteremia.
RESULTS: Infants with the lowest gestational age and birth weight z-score had the highest prevalence of definite and suspected late-onset bacteremia. Compared with peers with no or suspected bacteremia, infants with definite bacteremia performed worse on tests of general cognitive ability, language, academic achievement, and executive function, even after adjustment for potential confounders. Adjustment for low IQ attenuated the associations between bacteremia and all dysfunctions at age 10 years. Children with suspected bacteremia did not differ appreciably from those with no evidence of bacteremia. The motor domain was unaffected.
CONCLUSIONS: Extremely low gestational age newborns who had definite late bacteremia during postnatal weeks 2-4 are at heightened risk of neurocognitive limitations at age 10 years.

Genomic biomarkers of prenatal intrauterine inflammation in umbilical cord tissue predict later life neurological outcomes

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176953

Background: Preterm birth is a major risk factor for neurodevelopmental delays and disorders. This study aimed to identify genomic biomarkers of intrauterine inflammation in umbilical cord tissue in preterm neonates that predict cognitive impairment at 10 years of age.
Study design: Genome-wide messenger RNA (mRNA) levels from umbilical cord tissue were obtained from 43 neonates born before 28 weeks of gestation. Genes that were differentially expressed across four indicators of intrauterine inflammation were identified and their functions examined. Exact logistic regression was used to test whether expression levels in umbilical cord tissue predicted neurocognitive function at 10 years of age.
Results: Placental indicators of inflammation were associated with changes in the mRNA expression of 445 genes in umbilical cord tissue. Transcripts with decreased expression showed significant enrichment for biological signaling processes related to neuronal development and growth. The altered expression of six genes was found to predict neurocognitive impairment when children were 10 years old These genes include two that encode for proteins involved in neuronal development.
Conclusion: Prenatal intrauterine inflammation is associated with altered gene expression in umbilical cord tissue. A set of six of the differentially expressed genes predict cognitive impairment later in life, suggesting that the fetal environment is associated with significant adverse effects on neurodevelopment that persist into later childhood.

The Development of Extremely Preterm Infants Born to Women Who Had Genitourinary Infections During Pregnancy

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwv129

Gestational genitourinary infections, which have been associated with neurodevelopmental impairments among infants born near term, have not been studied among very preterm infants. The mothers of 989 infants born before 28 weeks of gestation were interviewed about urine, bladder, or kidney infections (UTIs) and cervical or vaginal infections (CVIs) during pregnancy, as well as other exposures and characteristics, and their charts were reviewed for the Extremely Low Gestational Age Newborns (ELGAN) Study (2002–2004). At 2 years of age, these infants underwent a neurodevelopmental assessment. Generalized estimating equation logistic regression models of developmental adversities were used to adjust for potential confounders. Infants born to women who reported a UTI were less likely than were others to have a very low Mental Development Index (adjusted odds ratio = 0.5; 95% confidence interval: 0.3, 0.8), whereas infants born to women who reported a CVI were more likely than others to have a low Psychomotor Development Index (adjusted odds ratio = 1.7; 95% confidence interval: 1.04, 2.7). In this high-risk sample, maternal gestational CVI, but not UTI, was associated with a higher risk of impaired motor development at 2 years of age. The apparent protective effect of UTI might be spurious, reflect confounding due to untreated asymptomatic bacteriuria among women who were not given a diagnosis of UTI, or reflect preconditioning.

The Effects of Social Exclusion on Play Experience and Hostile Cognitions in Digital Games

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1145/2858036.2858061

The social nature of multiplayer games provides compelling play experiences that are dynamic, unpredictable, and satisfying; however, playing digital games with others can result in feeling socially excluded. There are several known harmful effects of ostracism, including on cognition and the interpretation of social information. To investigate the effects of social exclusion in the context of a multiplayer game, we developed and validated a social exclusion paradigm that we embedded in an online game. Called Operator Challenge, our paradigm influenced feelings of social exclusion and access to hostile cognitions (measured through a word-completion task). In addition, the degree of experienced belonging predicted player enjoyment, effort, and the number of hostile words completed; however, the experience measures did not mediate the relationship between belonging and access to hostile cognitions. Our work facilitates understanding the causes and effects of exclusion, which is important for the study of player experience in multiplayer games.

Schoolbook texts: Behavioral achievement priming in math and language

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0150497

Prior research found reliable and considerably strong effects of semantic achievement primes on subsequent performance. In order to simulate a more natural priming condition to better understand the practical relevance of semantic achievement priming effects, running texts of schoolbook excerpts with and without achievement primes were used as priming stimuli. Additionally, we manipulated the achievement context; some subjects received no feedback about their achievement and others received feedback according to a social or individual reference norm. As expected, we found a reliable (albeit small) positive behavioral priming effect of semantic achievement primes on achievement in math (Experiment 1) and language tasks (Experiment 2). Feedback moderated the behavioral priming effect less consistently than we expected. The implication that achievement primes in schoolbooks can foster performance is discussed along with general theoretical implications.

Are all models susceptible to dysfunctional cognitions about eating and body image? The moderating role of personality styles

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40519-015-0228-6

Objective:
We investigated dysfunctional cognitions about eating and body image in relation to personality styles in a group of professional models.
Method:
Dysfunctional cognitions in professional models (n = 43) and a control group (n = 43) were assessed with the 'Eating Disorder Cognition Questionnaire' (EDCQ), eating attitudes with the 'Eating Attitudes Test' (EAT), and personality with the 'Personality Styles and Disorders Inventory' (PSDI-S).
Results:
Models had higher scores than controls on the EDCQ and EAT and on nine scales of the PSDI-S. Moderation analyses showed significant interactions between groups and personality styles in predicting EDCQ scales: The ambitious/narcissistic style was related to "negative body and self-esteem", the conscientious/compulsive style to "dietary restraint", and the spontaneous/borderline style to "loss of control in eating".
Conclusions:
The results indicate that not all models are susceptible to dysfunctional cognitions about eating and body image. Models are at a higher risk of developing negative automatic thoughts and dysfunctional assumptions relating to body size, shape and weight, especially if they have high scores on the above personality styles.

The role of systemic inflammation linking maternal body mass index to neurodevelopment in children Inflammation and neurodevelopment

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1038/pr.2015.179

Children of obese mothers are at increased risk of developmental adversities. Maternal obesity is linked to an inflammatory in utero environment, which, in turn, is associated with neurodevelopmental impairments in the offspring. This is an integrated mechanism review of animal and human literature related to the hypothesis that maternal obesity causes maternal and fetal inflammation, and that this inflammation adversely affects the neurodevelopment of children. We propose integrative models in which several aspects of inflammation are considered along the causative pathway linking maternal obesity with neurodevelopmental limitations.

Systemic inflammation on postnatal days 21 and 28 and indicators of brain dysfunction 2 years later among children born before the 28th week of gestation

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2015.11.004

Background: Systemic inflammation during the first two postnatal weeks in extremely preterm newborns (< 28 weeks gestation) has been associated with an increased risk of neurodevelopmental dysfunctions. Little is known, however, about the relationship between systemic inflammation during the third and fourth postnatal weeks and subsequent development.
Methods: We measured the concentrations of 16 inflammation-related proteins in blood spots collected on postnatal days 21 (N = 749) and 28 (N = 697) from infants born before the 28th week of gestation and assessed at age 2 years. We then sought the developmental correlates of top quartile concentrations for gestational age and day the specimen was collected. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were calculated from regular or multinomial logistic regression models (as appropriate).
Results: Top quartile concentrations of CRP, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-6R, TNF-R2, IL-8, ICAM-1, and TSH on both days 21 and 28 were associated with ventriculomegaly (when in the NICU) and microcephaly at age 2 years. Top quartile concentrations of CRP, SAA, IL-6, TNF-R2, IL-8, and ICAM-1 were associated with mental development index (MDI) of the Bayley-II < 55, while top quartile concentrations of CRP, TNF-α (inversely), IL-8, and ICAM-1 were associated with psychomotor development index (PDI) < 55
Conclusion: Extremely preterm newborns who had systemic inflammation during the third and fourth postnatal weeks were at increased risk of ventriculomegaly during the months after birth, and of microcephaly, and low Bayley Scale scores at 2 years old.

Maternal obesity and development of the preterm newborn at 2 years

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.13038

Aim: To evaluate to what extent extremely preterm children (<28 weeks’ gestational age) of overweight (BMI 25-29) or obese (BMI ≥ 30) women are at increased risk of adverse development at 2 years measured with the Bayley Scales of Infant Development II in a multi-center prospective cohort study.
Methods: Heights and pre-pregnancy weights of the mothers of 852 preterm born children were collected and included in multinomial logistic regression models.
Results: Compared to newborns born to mothers with normal BMIs, newborns of obese mothers, but not those of overweight mothers, were more likely to have Bayley Scales indices more than 3 standard deviations below the reference mean (mental: OR = 2.1; 95% CI: 1.3, 3.5) (motor: OR = 1.7; 95% CI: 1.1, 2.7). These associations were even more prominent in children who did not have the intermittent or sustained systemic inflammation profile previously shown to be associated with severely impaired development (mental: OR = 4.6; 95% CI: 1.6, 14) (motor: OR = 3.7; 95% CI: 1.5, 8.9).
Conclusion: Maternal obesity is associated with an increased risk of impaired offspring development. Some of this impaired development cannot be attributed to confounding due to immaturity, socio-economic correlates, or neonatal systemic inflammation.

Effects of implicit failure priming on cognitive and motoric performance in elementary school children

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1024/1421-0185/a000154

Previous research showed that failure primes in academic learning contexts can impair the performance of both older school children and college students. The present research tested the effect of failure priming on cognitive and motor performance in elementary school children. We hypothesized that children incidentally confronted with a cue previously learned to indicate failure would perform worse on a cognitive task (Study 1, N = 54 second-graders) and a motor task (Study 2, N = 60 third-graders) than children confronted with a cue indicating success or children in a control group. The results showed that the failure prime group performed worse than the success prime group on an intelligence test (Study 1) and a ball-throwing exercise (Study 2). Neither experimental group differed from the control group. Our studies confirmed previous findings, showing that failure primes can be learned early in life and quickly (e.g., 1 year of failure prime exposure, Study 1). Furthermore, even a one-trial learning process (Study 2) suffices to turn an inherently neutral cue into a failure prime. This failure prime, in turn, can impair different types of performance such as cognitive and motor performance.

Personality and planning: The interplay between linear and holistic processing

You need to have some intuition, some judgement about the issues you’re in, and you need sometimes to pause to reflect on the decisions that you make on the basis of the information you’ve seen. But you can’t be sort of so, you know, you can’t analyse this to death. Reflection is fine to give you a bit of time to let your intuition understand the issues you’re faced with, with a proper analysis of the facts, but you can’t become so introverted about it that you don’t make a decision at all. And you’ve got move quickly when you’re dealing with many risk issues.

The Perfect Storm: Preterm Birth, Neurodevelopmental Mechanisms, and Autism Causation

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2014.0036

A unifying model of autism causation remains elusive, and thus well-designed explanatory models are needed to develop appropriate therapeutic and preventive interventions. This essay argues that autism is not a static disorder, but rather an ongoing process. We discuss the link between preterm birth and autism and briefly review the evidence supporting the link between immune system characteristics and both prematurity and autism. We then propose a causation process model of autism etiology and pathogenesis, in which both neurodevelopment and ongoing/prolonged neuroinflammation are necessary pathogenetic component mechanisms. We suggest that an existing model of sufficient cause and component causes can be interpreted as a mechanistic view of etiology and pathogenesis and can serve as an explanatory model for autism causal pathways.

Intermittent or Sustained Systemic Inflammation (ISSI) and the Preterm Brain

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1038/pr.2013.238

Exposure to perinatal infection and inflammation is associated with an increased risk for neonatal brain damage and developmental disabilities. In this integrated mechanism review, we discuss evidence in support of the contention that the preterm newborn is capable of intermittent or sustained systemic inflammation (ISSI), which appears to contribute more to adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes in preterm infants than does shorter duration inflammation.

Elevated blood levels of inflammation-related proteins are associated with an attention problem at age 24 mo in extremely preterm infants

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1038/pr.2014.41

Background: Extremely preterm birth is associated with subsequent behavioral problems. We hypothesized that perinatal systemic inflammation, a risk factor for cerebral white matter injury and cognitive impairment, is associated with behavior problems observed at 2 years.
Methods: In a cohort of 600 children born before 28 weeks gestation, we measured 25 inflammation-related proteins in blood collected on postnatal days 1, 7, and 14, and identified behavior problems using parent responses to the Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 1.5–5 (CBCL/1.5-5) at two years of age. A persistent or recurrent protein elevation was defined as a concentration in the highest quartile (for gestational age and postnatal age) on at least two days approximately one week apart. Behavior problems were defined by CBCL/1.5-5 subscale scores at or above the 93rd percentile.
Results: A single-day elevation of ICAM-3 was associated with an increased risk of an attention problem, as were persistent or recurrent elevations of MPO, IL-6, TNF-RI, IL-8, ICAM-3, VEGF-R1, and VEGF-R2. These associations persisted among infants without white matter injury and cognitive impairment.
Conclusion: Among children born extremely prematurely, recurrent or persistent elevations of inflammation-related proteins in blood during in the first two postnatal weeks are associated with an attention problem at age 2 years.

Effect of sustained postnatal systemic inflammation on hippocampal volume and function in mice

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1038/pr.2014.106

BACKGROUND: Premature infants are at risk for persistent neurodevelopmental impairment. Children born preterm often exhibit reduced hippocampal volumes that correlate with deficits in working memory. Perinatal inflammation is associated with preterm birth and brain abnormalities. Here we examine the effects of postnatal systemic inflammation on the developing hippocampus in mice.
METHODS: Pups received daily intraperitoneal injections of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or saline between days 3 and 13. Ex vivo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and microscopic analysis of brain tissue was performed on day 14. Behavioral testing was conducted at 8-9 wk of age.
RESULTS: MR and microscopic analysis revealed a 15-20% reduction in hippocampal volume in LPS-treated mice compared with controls. Behavioral testing revealed deficits in hippocampal-related tasks in LPS-treated animals. Adult mice exposed to LPS during the postnatal period were unable to select a novel environment when re-placed within a 1-min delay, were less able to remember a familiar object after a 1-h delay, and had impaired retention of associative fear learning after 24 h.
CONCLUSION: Systemic inflammation sustained during the postnatal period contributes to reduced hippocampal volume and deficits in hippocampus-dependent working memory. These findings support the novel and emerging concept that sustained systemic inflammation contributes to neurodevelopmental impairment among preterm infants.

Failure cue priming and impaired cognitive performance: Analyses of avoidance motivation as a mediator and fear of failure as a moderator

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1942

The present research investigates whether and how learned symbols for failure reduce task performance. We tested the effect of number priming in two countries with different learning histories for numbers. Priming numbers associated with failure (6 in Germany and 1 in Switzerland) were hypothesized to reduce performance. As expected, in Switzerland, priming with the failure number 1 reduced performance (Study 1), whereas in Germany, priming with the failure number 6 impaired performance in analogy tasks (Study 2). Study 2 additionally analyzed the mechanism and showed that the relationship between failure number priming and performance was mediated by evoked avoidance motivation and that dispositional fear of failure moderated this mediation.

Antenatal antecedents of cognitive impairment at 24 months in extremely low gestational age newborns

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-1796

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Extremely low gestational age neonates are more likely than term infants to develop cognitive impairment. Few studies have addressed antenatal risk factors of this condition. We identified antenatal antecedents of cognitive impairment determined by the Mental Development Index (MDI) portion of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Second Edition (BSID-II), at 24 months corrected age.
METHODS: We studied a multicenter cohort of 921 infants born before 28 weeks of gestation during 2002 to 2004 and assessed their placentas for histologic characteristics and microorganisms. The mother was interviewed and her medical record was reviewed. At 24 months adjusted age, children were assessed with BSID-II. Multinomial logistic models were used to estimate odds ratios.
RESULTS: A total of 103 infants (11%) had an MDI <55, and 99 infants (11%) had an MDI between 55 and 69. No associations were identified between organisms recovered from the placenta and developmental delay. Factors most strongly associated with MDI <55 were thrombosis of fetal vessels (OR 3.1; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.2, 7.7), maternal BMI >30 (OR 2.0; 95% CI 1.1, 3.5), maternal education ≤12 years (OR 3.4; 95% CI 1.9, 6.2), nonwhite race (OR 2.2; 95% CI 1.3, 3.8), birth weight z score < -2 (OR 2.8; 95% CI 1.1, 6.9), and male gender (OR 2.7; 95% CI 1.6, 4.5).
CONCLUSIONS: Antenatal factors, including thrombosis of fetal vessels in the placenta, severe fetal growth restriction, and maternal obesity, convey information about the risk of cognitive impairment among extremely premature newborns.

Elevated concentrations of inflammation-related proteins in postnatal blood predict severe developmental delay at 2 years of age in extremely preterm infants

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2011.08.069

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the hypothesis that elevated levels of inflammation-related proteins in early postnatal blood predict impaired mental and motor development in extremely preterm infants.
STUDY DESIGN: We measured concentrations of 25 inflammation-related proteins in blood collected on postnatal days 1, 7, and 14 from 939 infants born before 28 weeks gestation. An elevated level was defined as a concentration in the highest quartile for gestational age and day of blood collection. We identified impaired development at age 24 months using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Second Edition. The primary outcomes were scores on the Mental Scale or the Motor Scale of <55 (more than 3 SDs below the mean).
RESULTS: For 17 of the 25 inflammation-related proteins, 1 or more statistically significant associations (P<.01) was found between an elevated blood level of the protein and a developmental impairment. Elevations on multiple days were more often associated with developmental impairment than were elevations present for only 1 day. The highest number of predictive elevations was found in day-14 blood.
CONCLUSION: In extremely preterm infants, elevated levels of inflammation-related proteins in blood collected on postnatal days 7 and 14, especially when sustained, are associated with impaired mental and motor development at age 2 years.

Placebo forte: Ways to maximize unspecific treatment effects

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2012.02.022

Placebo effects spark more and more interest in both medicine and psychotherapy. Neurobiological findings have helped to understand underlying biochemical and neurological mechanisms although many questions remain to be answered. One common denominator of empirical findings regarding placebo effects across a wide range of clinical conditions (e.g., depression, Parkinson's disease, pain, neurological disorders) is the involvement of higher cognitive brain functions associated with the prefrontal cortex. It is meanwhile commonly accepted that placebo effects involve self-regulatory mechanisms whose role in mediating those effects have not been thoroughly investigated yet. We propose a theoretical framework which helps to identify relevant functional mechanisms. Drawing on psychological findings, we propose a mechanism by which placebo effects can be maximized in any type of medical and psychotherapeutic setting.

Existential Neuroscience: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Investigation of Neural Responses to Reminders of one’s Mortality

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsq106

A considerable body of evidence derived from terror management theory indicates that the awareness of mortality represents a potent psychological threat engendering various forms of psychological defense. However, extant research has yet to examine the neurological correlates of cognitions about one's inevitable death. The present study thus investigated in 17 male participants patterns of neural activation elicited by mortality threat. To induce mortality threat, participants answered questions arranged in trial blocks that referred to fear of death and dying. In the control condition participants answered questions about fear of dental pain. Neural responses to mortality threat were greater than to pain threat in right amygdala, left rostral anterior cingulate cortex, and right caudate nucleus. We discuss implications of these findings for stimulating further research into the neurological correlates of managing existential fear.

Systemic inflammation disrupts the developmental program of white matter

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.22489

OBJECTIVE: Perinatal inflammation is a major risk factor for neurological deficits in preterm infants. Several experimental studies have shown that systemic inflammation can alter the programming of the developing brain. However, these studies do not offer detailed pathophysiological mechanisms, and they rely on relatively severe infectious or inflammatory stimuli that most likely do not reflect the levels of systemic inflammation observed in many human preterm infants. The goal of the present study was to test the hypothesis that moderate systemic inflammation is sufficient to alter white matter development.
METHODS: Newborn mice received twice-daily intraperitoneal injections of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) over 5 days and were studied for myelination, oligodendrogenesis, and behavior and with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
RESULTS: Mice exposed to IL-1β had a long-lasting myelination defect that was characterized by an increased number of nonmyelinated axons. They also displayed a reduction of the diameter of the myelinated axons. In addition, IL-1β induced a significant reduction of the density of myelinating oligodendrocytes accompanied by an increased density of oligodendrocyte progenitors, suggesting a partial blockade in the oligodendrocyte maturation process. Accordingly, IL-1β disrupted the coordinated expression of several transcription factors known to control oligodendrocyte maturation. These cellular and molecular abnormalities were correlated with a reduced white matter fractional anisotropy on diffusion tensor imaging and with memory deficits.
INTERPRETATION: Moderate perinatal systemic inflammation alters the developmental program of the white matter. This insult induces a long-lasting myelination deficit accompanied by cognitive defects and MRI abnormalities, further supporting the clinical relevance of the present data.

SNAP-II and SNAPPE-II and the Risk of Structural and Functional Brain Disorders in Extremely Low Gestational Age Newborns: The ELGAN Study.

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1159/000232588

Background: Illness severity measures predict death and illnesses in the newborn. It is unknown how well they predict brain lesions evident on ultrasound scans or neurodevelopmental dysfunctions in preterm infants. Methods: A total of 1,399 inborn infants born before the 28th week of gestation were given Scores for Neonatal Acute Physiology (SNAP-II and SNAPPE-II) based on data collected within the first 12 h of admission to the intensive care unit and had a protocol brain ultrasound scan read independently by 2 sonologists. Of the surviving 1,149 infants, 1,014 (88%) had a neurologic examination at approximately 24 months post-term equivalent, and 975 (85%) had a Bayley Scales of Infant Development assessment. SNAP-II and SNAPPE-II were dichotomized at arbitrary cut-offs (30 for SNAP-II and 45 for SNAPPE-II), using the highest quartile and decile of the week of gestation as a cut-off, and at a Z score of >1 standard deviation from an external mean. Results: After adjustment for gestational age, high SNAP-II and SNAPPE-II scores predicted intraventricular hemorrhage, moderate/severe ventriculomegaly and echodense lesions in cerebral white matter. Only 2 SNAP-II extremes, the highest decile for gestational age and a Z score >1, also predicted echolucent lesions in the white matter. Neither SNAP-II nor SNAPPE-II predicted any statistically significant diagnosis of cerebral palsy. MDI and PDI scores <55 were consistently predicted by both high SNAP-II and SNAPPE-II, whereas scores in the 55–69 range were inconsistently predicted. High SNAP-II and SNAPPE-II inconsistently predicted a positive screen for autism spectrum disorder and small head circumference at 24 months. Conclusion: The physiologic instability in the first 12 post-natal hours identified by illness severity scores conveys information about the risks of brain damage and neurodevelopmental dysfunctions. This risk information might reflect postnatal characteristics in the causal chain. On the other hand, high SNAP scores might be indicators of immaturity and vulnerability.

SNAP-II and SNAPPE-II and the Risk of Structural and Functional Brain Disorders in Extremely Low Gestational Age Newborns: The ELGAN Study.

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1159/000232588

Background: Illness severity measures predict death and illnesses in the newborn. It is unknown how well they predict brain lesions evident on ultrasound scans or neurodevelopmental dysfunctions in preterm infants. Methods: A total of 1,399 inborn infants born before the 28th week of gestation were given Scores for Neonatal Acute Physiology (SNAP-II and SNAPPE-II) based on data collected within the first 12 h of admission to the intensive care unit and had a protocol brain ultrasound scan read independently by 2 sonologists. Of the surviving 1,149 infants, 1,014 (88%) had a neurologic examination at approximately 24 months post-term equivalent, and 975 (85%) had a Bayley Scales of Infant Development assessment. SNAP-II and SNAPPE-II were dichotomized at arbitrary cut-offs (30 for SNAP-II and 45 for SNAPPE-II), using the highest quartile and decile of the week of gestation as a cut-off, and at a Z score of >1 standard deviation from an external mean. Results: After adjustment for gestational age, high SNAP-II and SNAPPE-II scores predicted intraventricular hemorrhage, moderate/severe ventriculomegaly and echodense lesions in cerebral white matter. Only 2 SNAP-II extremes, the highest decile for gestational age and a Z score >1, also predicted echolucent lesions in the white matter. Neither SNAP-II nor SNAPPE-II predicted any statistically significant diagnosis of cerebral palsy. MDI and PDI scores <55 were consistently predicted by both high SNAP-II and SNAPPE-II, whereas scores in the 55–69 range were inconsistently predicted. High SNAP-II and SNAPPE-II inconsistently predicted a positive screen for autism spectrum disorder and small head circumference at 24 months. Conclusion: The physiologic instability in the first 12 post-natal hours identified by illness severity scores conveys information about the risks of brain damage and neurodevelopmental dysfunctions. This risk information might reflect postnatal characteristics in the causal chain. On the other hand, high SNAP scores might be indicators of immaturity and vulnerability.

Neurodevelopment of extremely preterm infants who had necrotizing enterocolitis with or without late bacteremia

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2010.05.042

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate neurodevelopment after necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) and late bacteremia, alone and together.
STUDY DESIGN: Sample included 1155 infants born at 23 to 27 weeks' gestation. NEC was classified by the modified Bell's staging criteria and grouped as medical NEC or surgical NEC. Late bacteremia was defined as a positive blood culture result after the first postnatal week. Neurodevelopment was assessed at 24 months corrected age. Multivariable models estimated the risk of developmental dysfunction and microcephaly associated with medical or surgical NEC with and without late bacteremia.
RESULTS: Children who had surgical NEC unaccompanied by late bacteremia were at increased risk of psychomotor developmental indexes <70 (OR = 2.7 [1.2, 6.4]), and children who had both surgical NEC and late bacteremia were at increased risk of diparetic cerebral palsy (OR = 8.4 [1.9, 39]) and microcephaly (OR = 9.3 [2.2, 40]). In contrast, children who had medical NEC with or without late bacteremia were not at increased risk of any developmental dysfunction.
CONCLUSION: The risk of neurodevelopmental dysfunction and microcephaly is increased in children who had surgical NEC, especially if they also had late bacteremia. These observations support the hypothesis that bowel injury might initiate systemic inflammation potentially affecting the developing brain.

Affect-regulation, self-development and parenting: A functional-design approach to cross-cultural differences

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-373694-9.00002-7

Within any culture of the world people differ in the preferred degree of closeness and relatedness to others. Emotion is perhaps the most striking feature in which the constructs of independence and interdependence differ. This chapter improves our understanding of the role of emotion across cultures by taking a closer look at the cognitive, emotional, and developmental differences observed in cross-cultural research on independent and interdependent orientations; providing a theoretical explanation for the observed pattern of cognitive, emotional, and developmental differences between cultures that lean more toward individualistic or interrelated orientations. From a developmental point of view, the two cultural concepts of independence and interdependence are conceived of as idealized developmental pathways toward desirable endpoints in specific cultural environments. The theory of personality systems interactions (PSI) provides an understanding of patterns of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral characteristics that can be observed among people with or without a shared cultural environment. The new distinctions proposed are subtle but revealing, especially with regard to the distinction between integrative and orientations. The chapter also elaborates the role affect regulation plays in modulating the interaction between diverging cognitive processing styles and derives an elaborated model extending the framework of independence and interdependence to overcome some conceptual difficulties involved in this contrast.

Cytokines and perinatal brain damage

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clp.2008.07.011

Perinatal brain damage has been implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodevelopmental impairments and psychiatric illnesses. This article reviews evidence that infection outside of the brain can damage the brain, and discusses specific cytokines and pathomechanisms that probably mediate the putative effect of remote infection on the developing brain. Events associated with increased circulating inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and immune cells are described. Finally, studies of genetic variation in susceptibility to cytokine-related brain damage are reviewed.

Neonatal cranial ultrasound lesions and developmental delays at 2 years of age among extremely low gestational age children

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-0594

We evaluated associations between ultrasound-defined lesions of the brain and developmental delays at 24 months' corrected age in 1017 children born before the 28th postmenstrual week. Brain ultrasound scans were read for concordance on 4 lesions: intraventricular hemorrhage, moderate/severe ventriculomegaly, white matter echodense/hyperechoic lesions, and white matter echodense/hypoechoic lesions and 2 diagnoses-periventricular leukomalacia and periventricular hemorrhagic infarction. Certified examiners, who were not aware of the infants' ultrasound findings, administered the Bayley Scales of Infant Development-Second Edition. Children with an impairment (eg., blindness) that precluded testing with the Bayley Scales and those for whom >2 test items were omitted were classified using the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales Motor Skills Domain instead of the Psychomotor Development Index and the Adaptive Behavior Composite instead of the Mental Development Index. Fully 26% of all of the children had delayed mental development (ie, Mental Development Index < 70), and 31% had delayed psychomotor development (ie, Psychomotor Development Index < 70). Ultrasound abnormalities were more strongly associated with low Psychomotor Development Index than with low Mental Development Index. Children without cranial ultrasound abnormality had the lowest probability (23% and 26%) of delayed mental or psychomotor development. Moderate/severe ventriculomegaly was associated with a more than fourfold increase in the risk of psychomotor delay and an almost threefold increase in the risk of mental delay. Echolucency was the next best predictor of delayed mental and psychomotor development. The probability of low scores varied with the number of zones involved and with the location of echolucency. At particularly high risk were infants with bilateral cerebellar hemorrhage, co-occurring ventriculomegaly and echolucency bilateral echolucency, or echolucency located posteriorly.Focal white matter damage, as characterized by echolucent/hypoechoic lesion, and diffuse damage, as suggested by late ventriculomegaly, are associated with delayed mental and psychomotor development.

Maternal fever at birth and non-verbal intelligence at age 9 years in preterm infants

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1017/s001216220300029x

To test the hypothesis that characteristics of perinatal infection are associated with long-term cognitive limitations among preterm infants, we analyzed data from 294 infants (142 females, 152 males) < or = 1500 g birthweight and <37 completed weeks of gestation who were examined at age 9 years. We identified 47 children (20 females, 27 males) who had a nonverbal Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC) scale standard value below 70, i.e. more than 2 SDs below the age-adjusted mean. The 247 children (122 females, 125 males) with a score > or = 70 served as control participants. Maternal nationality and education, and low gestational age were significantly associated with a K-ABC nonverbal standard value <70. Both neonatal brain damage (intraventricular hemorrhage) and long-term sequelae (cerebral palsy [CP], diagnosed at age 6 years) were significantly associated with a below-normal non-verbal K-ABC score. Maternal fever at birth was present in five cases (11%) and eight controls (3%; odds ratio 3.6, 95% confidence interval 1.1 to 11.4). Clinical chorioamnionitis and preterm labor and/or premature rupture of membranes (as opposed to toxemia and other initiators of preterm delivery) were also more common among cases than control participants. When adjusting for potential confounders such as gestational age, maternal education and nationality, and CP, the risk estimate for maternal fever remained unchanged (3.8, 0.97 to 14.6). We conclude that perinatal infection might indeed contribute to an increased risk for long-term cognitive deficits in preterm infants.

Perinatal infection, fetal inflammatory response, white matter damage, and cognitive limitations in children born preterm

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1002/mrdd.10005

Only sparse information is available about a possible association between antenatal infection outside the brain and subsequent cognitive limitations among preterm infants. Based on published studies, we provide a theoretical schema that links them via the fetal inflammatory response and neonatal white matter damage. We conclude that the relationship between antenatal infection and cognitive limitations deserves much further attention by researchers interested in the prevention of this undesirable outcome of prematurity.

Is Periventricular Leukomalacia an Axonopathy as Well as an Oligopathy?

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1203/00006450-200104000-00003

Periventricular leukomalacia is a white matter disorder, the neonatal cranial ultrasound images of which predict long-term developmental limitations among preterm infants. The vulnerability of oligodendrocytes has led to the hypothesis that oligodendrocytes suffer the primary damage, with axonal damage occurring as a consequence. In this article, we discuss the differential role of oligodendrocytes and axons in this disorder's etiology, offering analogies from the multiple sclerosis and hydrocephalus literature. We conclude that it is too early to view periventricular leukomalacia exclusively as a consequence of oligodendrocyte damage and/or maldevelopment.

Categorization of unilaterally presented emotional words: an ERP analysis

This study is intended to clarify the functional role of different ERP components as indicators of the processing of emotions. The effect of emotional connotation of words on hemispheric lateralization is also explored. Visual ERPs were recorded to unilaterally presented positive, negative, and neutral words that should be categorized according to their emotional connotation. The P2 amplitude was larger to positive than to negative words whereas P3 amplitude was larger to positive words compared with neutral ones. The slow positive wave (SPW) was influenced by words emotionality at anterior and posterior sites differently. The amplitude of the N1 component was larger in the left hemisphere to contralaterally presented words. The P2 and P3 components were larger over the left hemisphere whereas the N3 and N4 components were larger over the right hemisphere to ipsilateral stimulation. The results support our hypotheses on the functional role of positive ERP components in the processing of an affective words connotation: the P2 wave reflects a general evaluation of emotional significance, the P3 a task-related decision, and the SPW an additional decision control in the context of the emotional experience of an individual. Neither the "right hemisphere hypothesis" nor "valence hypothesis" on lateralization of the processing of emotions were confirmed. Each hemisphere seems to exert its effect on emotion through specific hemispheric resources that are unequally allocated along the different stages of task processing and may cause alternation of hemispheric dominance.

Development of a regional cohort of very-low-birthweight children at six years: cognitive abilities are associated with neurological disability and social background

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.1996.tb12081.x

The authors studied the intelligence, memory, visuomotor skills and language of 298 six-year-old children with very low birthweight (VLBW) (less that 1500g). Of 591 VLBW children born July 1983 to June 1986 within 50km of the centre of Hamburg, Germany, 330 were traceable at age six years and 298 of these were seen by a neuro-paediatrician and a psychologist; the other 19 were too severely disabled for psychological assessment with the standardized tests used. The mean memory performance of VLBW children at age six years was below the standard mean in all diagnostic and socio-economic subgroups. As expected, visuomotor development was clearly influenced by neurological but not socio-economic status. Intelligence and language skills were much more closely related to socio-economic background that to neurological morbidity. However, VLBW children with hyperactivity, clumsiness or cerebral palsy differed significantly in intelligence and visuomotor performance from those without neurological symptoms.

Cognitive concomitants of depression: A further examination of the roles of generalization, high standards, and self-criticism

Six studies attempted to extend the finding that self-reports of the tendency to generalize from a bad outcome to a broader sense of self-worth are associated with depression. A new assessment device was created (Study 1), and several previous findings (Studies 2–6) were replicated, including the association between depression and generalization and the absence of association between depression and either self-criticism or high standards. This pattern was obtained among 114 West German university students (aged 19–54 yrs), 70 psychiatric inpatients (aged 19–61 yrs) and 11 controls, and 1,306 American university students. Studies 2–4 found no evidence of a unidirectional causal connection between generalization and depression. Study 6 found an additional association between depression and the self-reported tendency to perseverate mentally on failures.

Motivation und Handlungskontrolle: Ohne guten Willen geht es nicht [Motivation and action control: Where there is a will, there is a way]

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-71763-5_8

Als ich Anfang der 70er Jahre meinen ersten Versuch machte, das motivationstheoretische Paradigma um eine mir wichtig erscheinende Prozesskomponente zu erweitern (Kuhl, 1972), wagte ich noch nicht, diesen bislang vernachlässigten Prozessaspekt mit dem Begriff „Wille“ zu bezeichnen, obwohl es mir genau um die psychischen Abschirmvorgänge ging, die in der früheren deutschen Willenspsychologie so intensiv untersucht worden waren (Ach, 1905, 1910). Der Begriff Wille war in der experimentalpsychologischen Tradition zum Tabuwort geworden und mußte oft unter unscheinbaren Decknamen ein Schattendasein in Nachbardisziplinen führen. Dafür gab es viele Gründe. Zwar hatte bereits Ach (1910) mit seiner Unterscheidung zwischen der „positive“ und der „negativen“ Definition der Willensfreiheit eine klare Grundlage für die Abgrenzung des Gegenstandes der experimentellen Willenspsychologie von dem philosophisch stark belasteten Willensbegriff geleistet. Trotzdem könnte man meinen, daß es den Philosophen gelungen war, den Psychologen Angst vor der experimentellen Analyse des Willens einzujagen. Diese Angst konnte sich natürlich auch deshalb ungehindert ausbreiten, weil sich die Experimentalpsychologen inzwischen selbst eine Philosophie zugelegt hatten, die auch durchaus unschuldiger anmutende Konzepte aus der Psychologie verbannen wollte.

Action control: The maintenance of motivational states

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-70967-8_19

According to McClelland’s classic theory of motivation (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1953), a moderate discrepancy between an individual’s goals and her/his current achievements is the motivating source for subsequent efforts to approach those goals. Although the model claimed that large discrepancies resulted in a decrease of motivation, I tend to believe that scientists are sometimes motivated even by extremely large discrepancies between their goals and their achievements. When Heinz Heckhausen decided to pick up the line of research initiated by Jack Atkinson (1957), he created the perfect conditions for generating an inexhaustible source of motivation for his own subsequent research activities and those of his students. This motivational potential derived from the vast discrepancy between the simplicity of Atkinson’s structural model and the complexity of Heckhausen’s process-oriented visions of a future theory of motivation. Having been directly exposed to both sides of this discrepancy during my years at Michigan and Bochum, I might have experienced even more impatience about the discrepancy between aspirations and achievements in motivation research than my colleagues there. Each of us felt the need to transcend the rigid limitations of expectancy-value theories of motivation and each of us reduced the goal discrepancy in a different way, as many chapters in this volume testify.

Mediating vs. meditating cognitions in human motivation: Action control, inertial motivation, and the alienation effect

Cognitive theories of motivation are based on the assumption that human behavior is controlled by rational choice (Heckhausen, 1977, 1980; Weiner, 1972, 1980). Expectancy-value theories postulate that - ceteris paribus - an actor having the choice between two activities should perform the more attractive one. Although there is quite some evidence suggesting the validity of expectancy-value conceptions in fictitious situations or in games (e.g., Kuhl, 1982a; Lynch & Cohen, 1978; Slovic, Fischhoff, & Lichtenstein, 1977), there are several methodological and theoretical considerations that cast doubt on the ecological validity of expectancy-value theory (Kuhl, 1982a). One criticism concerns the implicit assumption of cognitive theories of motivation that in everyday life people always do what they intend to do.

The dynamic theory of the anxiety-behavior relation: A study of resistance and time allocation

The most salient property of motivational states is their potential to persist over long periods of time. This property clearly distinguishes motivational states (e.g., goal states) from cognitive and emotional states and forms the basis of Freud (1949) and Lewin (1935) theories of motivation. Unsatisfied needs and unattained goals seem to have the potential for persisting over extended periods of time ( Atkinson, 1958; Ovsiankina, 1928; Wicklund & Gollwitzer, 1982; Zeigarnik, 1927), whereas cognitive states require continuous rehearsal to stay active ( Anderson, 1983; R. C. Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968). Although emotional states may decay at a somewhat slower rate than cognitive states, many changes in the environment can quickly modify the organism's emotional state (Izard, 1977; Plutchik, 1980).

The dynamic theory of the anxiety-behavior relation: A study of resistance and time allocation

The most salient property of motivational states is their potential to persist over long periods of time. This property clearly distinguishes motivational states (e.g., goal states) from cognitive and emotional states and forms the basis of Freud (1949) and Lewin (1935) theories of motivation. Unsatisfied needs and unattained goals seem to have the potential for persisting over extended periods of time ( Atkinson, 1958; Ovsiankina, 1928; Wicklund & Gollwitzer, 1982; Zeigarnik, 1927), whereas cognitive states require continuous rehearsal to stay active ( Anderson, 1983; R. C. Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968). Although emotional states may decay at a somewhat slower rate than cognitive states, many changes in the environment can quickly modify the organism's emotional state (Izard, 1977; Plutchik, 1980).

Emotion, Kognition und Motivation: II. Die funktionale Bedeutung der Emotion für das problemlösende Denken und für das konkrete Handeln [Emotion, cognition, and motivation: II. The functional significance of emotions for problem-solving and action]

Discusses various effects of emotions on processes of perception, memory, problem solving, and overt action. Different emotions can act as retrieval cues that facilitate performance. Also, different emotions may trigger different modes of processing. Joy, interest, and anger facilitate an intuitive-holistic mode of processing, whereas fear, shame, surprise, sadness, and guilt facilitate a shift to a sequential-analytic mode of processing. A model is proposed that supports a cognitive-episodic process of motivation for the latter set of emotions and a dynamic motivational process for the former set.

Emotion, Kognition und Motivation: I. Auf dem Wege zu einer systemtheoretischen Betrachtung der Emotionsgenese [Emotion, cognition, and motivation: I. Toward a systems-oriented view of the generation of emotions]

Discusses the effect of cognitive and noncognitive factors on the arousal of emotional processes. The theories of C. E. Izard (1971, 1977, 1979) and R. Plutchik (1980) on differential emotions are reviewed, and an analysis of peripheral, central, and cognitive models of emotion is presented. A systems-oriented model of emotional arousal that describes emotions in terms of a dynamic process that is constantly affected by (1) the results of cognitive information processing on various levels of analysis, (2) the kind and intensity of emotions that have been aroused at earlier stages, (3) feedback from expressive behavior, (4) feedback from autonomic behavior, and (5) feedback from overt goal-directed behavior is described.